Note: One dataset on the "Gaokao experiment" (Section 6.2 of main paper) remains confidential, but was made available to the Data Editor of Econometrica for replication purposes. These data may be obtained with Data Use Agreements with the authors of the original study (Li et al, 2019). Researchers interested in access to the data may contact Peng Ding. We will assist with any reasonable replication attempts for two years following publication.

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